Review
Early View Article
DOI DOI: 10.62063/rev-42

Phytoremediation of toxic metals and their post-remediation management approaches

Acharya Balkrishna1, Stuti Srivastava1, Nidhi Sharma1, Deepika Srivastava1, Vedpriya Arya1, Vijay Kumar1, Ajay Kumar Gautam1
  1. 1 Patanjali Research Foundation

Abstract

Toxic metal contamination is a serious concern nowadays due to their persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation properties. These metals cause severe effects on human health and the environment, and even at low concentrations, they may contribute to severe diseases, including cancer. Phytoremediation is one of the eco-friendly and cost-effective methods for the remediation of toxic metals. Hyperaccumulator plants absorb and tolerate higher concentrations of toxic metals through various mechanisms, including chelation, antioxidant defense, compartmentalization, uptake, and storage in their tissues. The mitigation of toxic metal contamination through phytoremediation is a cost-effective approach. However, it must include thorough assessments of its impacts on herbivores and humans during and after the remediation process. Herbivores eating these hyperaccumulators may develop toxic metal accumulation, which could lead to neurological, developmental, and other disorders. Post-phytoremediation strategies for managing biomass include incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, and composting. Biomass management, such as thermal treatments like pyrolysis or biological methods like composting are used to prevent contaminants from re-entering the soil. However, the risk of secondary pollution persists if handling protocols are not strictly regulated. Though phytoremediation presents an encouraging solution to the problem of toxic metal pollution, successful phytoremediation projects require the management of post-remediation biomass. This review article focuses on the concept of phytoremediation of toxic metal contamination, including the mechanism of metal binding and sequestration in hyperaccumulator plants. It also focuses on sustainable strategies for environmental protection and economic feasibility to promote informed decision-making in phytotechnologies.

How to Cite

Acharya Balkrishna, Stuti Srivastava, Nidhi Sharma, Deepika Srivastava, Vedpriya Arya, Vijay Kumar, & Ajay Kumar Gautam. (2026). Phytoremediation of toxic metals and their post-remediation management approaches. EUCHEMBIOJ Reviews, 2(1), e26007. https://doi.org/10.62063/rev-42
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS) BibTeX

References

  1. Abdelsalam, I. M., Elshobary, M., Eladawy, M. M., & Nagah, M. (2019). Utilization of multi-tasking non-edible plants for phytoremediation and bioenergy source: A review. Phyton, 88(2), 69. https://doi.org/10.32604/phyton.2019.06831
  2. Abid, H., Mahroof, S., Ahmad, K. S., Sadia, S., Iqbal, U., Mehmood, A., Shehzad, M. A., Basit, A., Tahir, M. M., Awan, U. A., Almutairi, K. F., Elansary, H. O., & Moussa, I. M. (2025). Harnessing native plants for sustainable heavy metal phytoremediation in crushing industry soils of Muzaffarabad. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 38, 104141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2025.104141
  3. Achmad, R. T., & Auerkari, E. I. (2017). Effects of chromium on the human body. Annual Research & Review in Biology, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2017/33462
  4. Adamu, H., Uzairu, A., & Harrison, G. F. (2013). Assessment of trace metals in sewage water and sludge from River Kubanni drainage basin. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB08.1075
  5. Aftab, N., Saleem, K., Khan, A. H. A., Butt, T. A., Mirza, C. R., Hussain, J., Farooq, G., Tahir, A., Yousaf, S., Zafar, M. I., Nawaz, I., & Iqbal, M. (2021). Cosmos sulphureus Cav. is more tolerant to lead than copper and chromium in hydroponics system. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 18, 2325–2334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-020-02981-w
  6. Afzal, M., Arslan, M., Müller, J. A., Shabir, G., Islam, E., Tahseen, R., Anwar-ul-Haq, M., Hashmat, A. J., Iqbal, S., & Khan, Q. M. (2019). Floating treatment wetlands as a suitable option for large-scale wastewater treatment. Nature Sustainability, 2(9), 863–871. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0350-y
  7. Ahmed, S. F., Kumar, P. S., Rozbu, M. R., Chowdhury, A. T., Nuzhat, S., Rafa, N., Mahlia, T. M. I., Ong, H. C., & Mofijur, M. (2021). Heavy metal toxicity, sources, and remediation techniques for contaminated water and soil. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 25, 102114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2021.102114
  8. Ahsan, N., Lee, D.-G., Kim, K.-H., Alam, I., Lee, S.-H., Lee, K.-W., Lee, H., & Lee, B.-H. (2010). Analysis of arsenic stress-induced differentially expressed proteins in rice leaves by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry. Chemosphere, 78(3), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.11.004
  9. Aishwarya, S., Venkateswarlu, N., Chandramouli, K., & Vijaya, T. (2014). Role of endophytic fungi in the restoration of heavy metal contaminated soils. Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 4, 5427–5436.
  10. Akinbile, B. J., & Mbohwa, C. (2025). Incorporating hyperaccumulating plants in phytomining, remediation and resource recovery: Recent trends in the African region: A review. RSC Sustainability, 3(4), 1652–1671. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SU00021A
  11. Alaribe, F. O., & Agamuthu, P. (2015). Assessment of phytoremediation potentials of Lantana camara in Pb-impacted soil with organic waste additives. Ecological Engineering, 83, 513–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.07.001
  12. Alcazar-Ruiz, A., Ortiz, M. L., Dorado, F., & Sanchez-Silva, L. (2022). Gasification versus fast pyrolysis bio-oil production: A life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 336, 130373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130373
  13. Ali, H., Khan, E., & Sajad, M. A. (2013). Phytoremediation of heavy metals: Concepts and applications. Chemosphere, 91(7), 869–881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.01.075
  14. Ali, H., Naseer, M., & Sajad, M. A. (2012). Phytoremediation of heavy metals by Trifolium alexandrinum. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(3), 1459–1469. https://doi.org/10.6088/ijes.00202030031
  15. Ali, Z., Waheed, H., Gul, A., Afzal, F., Anwaar, K., & Imran, S. (2017). Brassicaceae plants: Metal accumulation and their role in phytoremediation. In Oilseed crops: Yield and adaptation under environmental stress (pp. 207–223). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119048800.ch11
  16. Almeida, J. C., Cardoso, C. E., Tavares, D. S., Freitas, R., Trindade, T., Vale, C., & Pereira, E. (2019). Chromium removal from contaminated waters using nanomaterials: A review. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 118, 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.05.005
  17. Alsafran, M., Usman, K., Ahmed, B., Rizwan, M., Saleem, M. H., & Al Jabri, H. (2022). Understanding the phytoremediation mechanisms of potentially toxic elements: A proteomic overview of recent advances. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, 881242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.881242
  18. Alsafran, M., Usman, K., & Al Jabri, H. (2021). Ecological and health risks assessment of potentially toxic metals and metalloids contaminants: A case study of agricultural soils in Qatar. Toxics, 9(2), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9020035
  19. Al-Thani, R. F., & Yasseen, B. T. (2020). Phytoremediation of polluted soils and waters by native Qatari plants: Future perspectives. Environmental Pollution, 259, 113694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113694
  20. Angelova, V. R., Grekov, D. F., Kisyov, V. K., & Ivanov, K. I. (2015). Potential of lavender (Lavandula vera L.) for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. International Journal of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, 9(5), 522–529.
  21. Angelova, V. R., Ivanova, R. V., Todorov, G. M., & Ivanov, K. I. (2016). Potential of Salvia sclarea L. for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. International Journal of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, 10(12), 780–790.
  22. Angon, P. B., Islam, M. S., KC, S., Das, A., Anjum, N., Poudel, A., & Suchi, S. A. (2024). Sources, effects and present perspectives of heavy metals contamination: Soil, plants and human food chain. Heliyon, 10(7), e28357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28357
  23. Anjum, N. A., Gill, S. S., Ahmad, I., Pacheco, M., Duarte, A. C., Umar, S., Khan, N. A., & Pereira, M. E. (2012). The plant family Brassicaceae: An introduction. In N. A. Anjum et al. (Eds.), The plant family Brassicaceae: Contribution towards phytoremediation (pp. 1–33). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3913-0_1
  24. Anjum, N. A., Umar, S., Ahmad, A., Iqbal, M., & Khan, N. A. (2008). Sulphur protects mustard (Brassica campestris L.) from cadmium toxicity by improving leaf ascorbate and glutathione. Plant Growth Regulation, 54, 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-007-9251-6
  25. Anjum, N. A., Umar, S., & Iqbal, M. (2014). Assessment of cadmium accumulation, toxicity, and tolerance in Brassicaceae and Fabaceae plants: Implications for phytoremediation. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21, 10286–10293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2889-5
  26. Arshad, M., Silvestre, J., Pinelli, E., Kallerhoff, J., Kaemmerer, M., Tarigo, A., Shahid, M., Guiresse, M., Pradere, P., & Dumat, C. (2008). A field study of lead phytoextraction by various scented Pelargonium cultivars. Chemosphere, 71(11), 2187–2192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.02.013
  27. Aryal, M. (2024). Phytoremediation strategies for mitigating environmental toxicants. Heliyon, 10(19), e38683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38683
  28. Asare, D. A., Anderson, E., Amosah, M. E., Ntiri-Bekoh, R., & Ofori-Sarpong, G. (2021). Assessing the toxicity of Colocassia esculenta (cocoyam plant) grown on mercury-contaminated soil. Ghana Mining Journal, 21(2), 46–54. https://doi.org/10.4314/gm.v21i2.6
  29. Assunção, A. G., Martins, P. D., De Folter, S., Vooijs, R., Schat, H., & Aarts, M. G. (2001). Elevated expression of metal transporter genes in three accessions of the metal hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens. Plant, Cell & Environment, 24(2), 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2001.00666.x
  30. Awa, S. H., & Hadibarata, T. (2020). Removal of heavy metals in contaminated soil by phytoremediation mechanism: A review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 231(2), 47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-4426-0
  31. Axelsen, K. B., & Palmgren, M. G. (2001). Inventory of the superfamily of P-type ion pumps in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiology, 126(2), 696–706. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.126.2.696
  32. Barlow, R., Bryant, N., Andersland, J., & Sahi, S. (2000). Lead hyperaccumulation by Sesbania drummondii. In Proceedings of the 2000 Conference on Hazardous Waste Research (pp. 112–114).
  33. Bhattacharya, P. T., Misra, S. R., & Hussain, M. (2016). Nutritional aspects of essential trace elements in oral health and disease: An extensive review. Scientifica, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5464373
  34. Bozdoğan Sert, E., Türkmen, M., & Çetin, M. (2019). Heavy metal accumulation in rosemary leaves and stems exposed to traffic-related pollution near Adana-İskenderun Highway (Hatay, Turkey). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7714-7
  35. Brunner, I., Luster, J., Günthardt-Goerg, M. S., & Frey, B. (2008). Heavy metal accumulation and phytostabilisation potential of tree fine roots in a contaminated soil. Environmental Pollution, 152(3), 559–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.07.006
  36. Buendía-González, L., Orozco-Villafuerte, J., Cruz-Sosa, F., Barrera-Díaz, C. E., & Vernon-Carter, E. J. (2010). Prosopis laevigata: A potential chromium (VI) and cadmium (II) hyperaccumulator desert plant. Bioresource Technology, 101(15), 5862–5867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.03.027
  37. Cailliatte, R., Schikora, A., Briat, J. F., Mari, S., & Curie, C. (2010). High-affinity manganese uptake by the metal transporter NRAMP1 is essential for Arabidopsis growth in low manganese conditions. The Plant Cell, 22(3), 904–917. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.109.073023
  38. Cao, X., Dong, Q., Mao, L., Yang, X., Wang, X., & Zou, Q. (2025). Enhanced phytoextraction technologies for the sustainable remediation of cadmium-contaminated soil based on hyperaccumulators: A review. Plants, 14(1), 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14010115
  39. Cartea, M. E., Francisco, M., Soengas, P., & Velasco, P. (2010). Phenolic compounds in Brassica vegetables. Molecules, 16(1), 251–280. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules16010251
  40. Chand, S., Singh, G., Rajkumari, & Patra, D. D. (2016). Performance of rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) in heavy metal-polluted soil vis-à-vis phytoaccumulation of metals. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 18(8), 754–760. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2015.1131236
  41. Chaney, R. L., Broadhurst, C. L., & Centofanti, T. (2010). Phytoremediation of soil trace elements. In Trace elements in soils (pp. 311–352). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444319477.ch14
  42. Chatterjee, C., Dube, B. K., Sinha, P., & Srivastava, P. (2004). Detrimental effects of lead phytotoxicity on growth, yield, and metabolism of rice. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 35(1–2), 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1081/CSS-120027648
  43. Chehregani, A., & Malayeri, B. E. (2007). Removal of heavy metals by native accumulator plants. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 9(3), 462–465.
  44. Chen, A. Y., & Olsen, T. (2016). Chromated copper arsenate-treated wood: A potential source of arsenic exposure and toxicity in dermatology. International Journal of Women’s Dermatology, 2(1), 28–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijwd.2016.01.002
  45. Chen, H.-L., Su, H.-J., Guo, Y.-L., Liao, P.-C., Hung, C.-F., & Lee, C.-C. (2006). Biochemistry examinations and health disorder evaluation of Taiwanese living near incinerators and with low serum PCDD/Fs levels. Science of the Total Environment, 366(2–3), 538–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.11.004
  46. Chen, Y., Shen, Z., & Li, X. (2004). The use of vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) in the phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. Applied Geochemistry, 19(10), 1553–1565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.02.003
  47. Cheng, Y., Zhao, Y., Chen, C., & Zhang, F. (2025). Heavy metals toxicity: Mechanism, health effects, and therapeutic interventions. MedComm, 6(9), e70241. https://doi.org/10.1002/mco2.70241
  48. Chinmayee, M. D., Mahesh, B., Pradesh, S., Mini, I., & Swapna, T. S. (2012). Assessment of phytoremediation potential of invasive weed Amaranthus spinosus L. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 167, 1550–1559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-012-9657-0
  49. Cosio, C., Martinoia, E., & Keller, C. (2004). Hyperaccumulation of cadmium and zinc in Thlaspi caerulescens and Arabidopsis halleri at the leaf cellular level. Plant Physiology, 134(2), 716–725. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.103.031948
  50. Cristaldi, A., Conti, G. O., Jho, E. H., Zuccarello, P., Grasso, A., Copat, C., & Ferrante, M. (2017). Phytoremediation of contaminated soils by heavy metals and PAHs: A brief review. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 8, 309–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2017.08.002
  51. Cui, X., Shen, Y., Yang, Q., Kawi, S., He, Z., Yang, X., & Wang, C. H. (2018). Simultaneous syngas and biochar production during heavy metal separation from Cd/Zn hyperaccumulator (Sedum alfredii) by gasification. Chemical Engineering Journal, 347, 543–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.04.133
  52. Dasgupta, S., Satvat, P. S., & Mahindrakar, A. B. (2011). Ability of Cicer arietinum (L.) for bioremoval of lead and chromium from soil. International Journal of Technical Engineering Systems, 24, 338–341.
  53. de la Rosa, G., Peralta-Videa, J. R., Montes, M., Parsons, J. G., Cano-Aguilera, I., & Gardea-Torresdey, J. L. (2004). Cadmium uptake and translocation in tumbleweed (Salsola kali), a potential Cd-hyperaccumulator desert plant species: ICP/OES and XAS studies. Chemosphere, 55(9), 1159–1168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.01.028
  54. Debnath, B., Singh, W. S., & Manna, K. (2019). Sources and toxicological effects of lead on human health. Indian Journal of Medical Specialities, 10(2), 66. https://doi.org/10.4103/INJMS.INJMS_30_18
  55. Deng, S., Zhang, X., Zhu, Y., & Zhuo, R. (2024). Recent advances in phyto-combined remediation of heavy metal pollution in soil. Biotechnology Advances, 72, 108337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2024.108337
  56. Desbrosses-Fonrouge, A. G., Voigt, K., Schröder, A., Arrivault, S., Thomine, S., & Krämer, U. (2005). Arabidopsis thaliana MTP1 is a Zn transporter in the vacuolar membrane which mediates Zn detoxification and drives leaf Zn accumulation. FEBS Letters, 579(19), 4165–4174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2005.06.046
  57. Dhanwal, P., Kumar, A., Dudeja, S., Chhokar, V., & Beniwal, V. (2017). Recent advances in phytoremediation technology. In Advances in environmental biotechnology (pp. 227–241). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4041-2_14
  58. Dhiman, S. S., Zhao, X., Li, J., Kim, D., Kalia, V. C., Kim, I.-W., Kim, J. Y., & Lee, J.-K. (2017). Metal accumulation by sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and the efficacy of its biomass in enzymatic saccharification. PLOS ONE, 12(4), e0175845. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175845
  59. Dinu, C., Vasile, G. G., Buleandra, M., Popa, D. E., Gheorghe, S., & Ungureanu, E. M. (2020). Translocation and accumulation of heavy metals in Ocimum basilicum L. plants grown in a mining-contaminated soil. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20, 2141–2154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-019-02550-w
  60. Domínguez-Solís, J. R., López-Martín, M. C., Ager, F. J., Ynsa, M. D., Romero, L. C., & Gotor, C. (2004). Increased cysteine availability is essential for cadmium tolerance and accumulation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 2(6), 469–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7652.2004.00092.x
  61. Duan, L., Li, X., Jiang, Y., Lei, M., Dong, Z., & Longhurst, P. (2017). Arsenic transformation behaviour during thermal decomposition of Pteris vittata, an arsenic hyperaccumulator. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 124, 584–591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2017.01.013
  62. Duruibe, J. O., Ogwuegbu, M. O., & Egwurugwu, J. N. (2007). Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences, 2(5), 112–118.
  63. Ehsan, M., Santamaría-Delgado, K., Alderete-Chavez, A., De la Cruz-Landero, N., Jaén-Contreras, D., & Molumeli, P. A. (2009). Phytostabilization of cadmium-contaminated soils by Lupinus uncinatus Schldl. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(2), 390–397. https://doi.org/10.5424/sjar/2009072-430
  64. Eissa, M. A. (2025). Phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils: Evaluating agronomic crops, hyperaccumulators, and halophytes. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15320383.2025.2591202
  65. Fatima, G., Raza, A. M., Hadi, N., Nigam, N., & Mahdi, A. A. (2019). Cadmium in human diseases: It’s more than just a mere metal. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry, 34, 371–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12291-019-00839-8
  66. Fiorentino, N., Ventorino, V., Rocco, C., Cenvinzo, V., Agrelli, D., Gioia, L., Di Mola, I., Adamo, P., Pepe, O., & Fagnano, M. (2017). Giant reed growth and effects on soil biological fertility in assisted phytoremediation of an industrial polluted soil. Science of the Total Environment, 575, 1375–1383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.220
  67. Francesconi, K., Visoottiviseth, P., Sridokchan, W., & Goessler, W. (2002). Arsenic species in an arsenic hyperaccumulating fern, Pityrogramma calomelanos: A potential phytoremediator of arsenic-contaminated soils. Science of the Total Environment, 284(1–3), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(01)00854-3
  68. Freeman, J. L., Persans, M. W., Nieman, K., Albrecht, C., Peer, W., Pickering, I. J., & Salt, D. E. (2004). Increased glutathione biosynthesis plays a role in nickel tolerance in Thlaspi nickel hyperaccumulators. The Plant Cell, 16(8), 2176–2191. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.104.023036
  69. Frérot, H., Faucon, M., Willems, G., Godé, C., Courseaux, A., Darracq, A., Verbruggen, N., & Saumitou-Laprade, P. (2010). Genetic architecture of zinc hyperaccumulation in Arabidopsis halleri: The essential role of QTL × environment interactions. New Phytologist, 187(2), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03295.x
  70. Gao, F., Shen, Y., Sallach, J. B., Li, H., Liu, C., & Li, Y. (2021). Direct prediction of bioaccumulation of organic contaminants in plant roots from soils with machine learning models based on molecular structures. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(24), 16358–16368. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c02376
  71. García-Salgado, S., García-Casillas, D., Quijano-Nieto, M. A., & Bonilla-Simón, M. M. (2012). Arsenic and heavy metal uptake and accumulation in native plant species from soils polluted by mining activities. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 223, 559–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-011-0882-x
  72. Gardea-Torresdey, J. L., Peralta-Videa, J. R., Montes, M., de la Rosa, G., & Corral-Díaz, B. (2004). Bioaccumulation of cadmium, chromium, and copper by Convolvulus arvensis L.: Impact on plant growth and uptake of nutritional elements. Bioresource Technology, 92(3), 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2003.10.002
  73. Garg, N., Singla, P., & Bhandari, P. (2015). Metal uptake, oxidative metabolism, and mycorrhization in pigeonpea and pea under arsenic and cadmium stress. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 39(2), 234–250. https://doi.org/10.3906/tar-1406-121
  74. Gautam, M., Pandey, D., & Agrawal, M. (2017). Phytoremediation of metals using lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.) grown under different levels of red mud in soil amended with biowastes. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 19(6), 555–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2016.1267701
  75. Genchi, G., Carocci, A., Lauria, G., Sinicropi, M. S., & Catalano, A. (2020). Nickel: Human health and environmental toxicology. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 679. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030679
  76. Gerhardt, K. E., Gerwing, P. D., & Greenberg, B. M. (2017). Taking phytoremediation from proven technology to accepted practice. Plant Science, 256, 170–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.11.016
  77. Ghosh, A., Singh, V. K., Dey, K., Patel, M., & Pal, A. (2021). Phytoremediation: A cost-effective tool for solid waste management. In Handbook of solid waste management: Sustainability through circular economy (pp. 1–30). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7525-9_47-2
  78. Golan-Goldhirsh, A. (2006). Plant tolerance to heavy metals: A risk for food toxicity or a means for food fortification with essential metals: The Allium schoenoprasum model. In Soil and water pollution monitoring, protection and remediation (pp. 479–486). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4728-2_31
  79. Gomes, H. I. (2012). Phytoremediation for bioenergy: Challenges and opportunities. Environmental Technology Reviews, 1(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2012.696715
  80. González, H., Fernández-Fuego, D., Bertrand, A., & González, A. (2019). Effect of pH and citric acid on the growth, arsenic accumulation, and phytochelatin synthesis in Eupatorium cannabinum L., a promising plant for phytostabilization. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 26242–26253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05657-2
  81. Guerinot, M. L. (2000). The ZIP family of metal transporters. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Biomembranes, 1465(1–2), 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-2736(00)00138-3
  82. Gündüz, S., Uygur, F. N., & Kahramanoğlu, I. (2012). Heavy metal phytoremediation potentials of Lepidium sativum L., Lactuca sativa L., Spinacia oleracea L., and Raphanus sativus L. Herald Journal of Agriculture and Food Science Research, 1, 1–5.
  83. Gurajala, H. K., Cao, X., Tang, L., Ramesh, T. M., Lu, M., & Yang, X. (2019). Comparative assessment of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) genotypes for phytoremediation of Cd- and Pb-contaminated soils. Environmental Pollution, 254, 113085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113085
  84. Gustin, J. L., Zanis, M. J., & Salt, D. E. (2011). Structure and evolution of the plant cation diffusion facilitator family of ion transporters. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 11, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-11-76
  85. Ha, E., Basu, N., Bose-O’Reilly, S., Dórea, J. G., McSorley, E., Sakamoto, M., & Chan, H. M. (2017). Current progress on understanding the impact of mercury on human health. Environmental Research, 152, 419–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.06.042
  86. Habiba, U., Ali, S., Rizwan, M., Ibrahim, M., Hussain, A., Shahid, M. R., Alamri, S. A., Alyemeni, M. N., & Ahmad, P. (2019). Alleviative role of exogenously applied mannitol in maize cultivars differing in chromium stress tolerance. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(5), 5111–5121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3970-2
  87. Hall, J. Á. (2002). Cellular mechanisms for heavy metal detoxification and tolerance. Journal of Experimental Botany, 53(366), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/jexbot/53.366.1
  88. Hamzah, A., Hapsari, R. I., & Wisnubroto, E. I. (2016). Phytoremediation of cadmium-contaminated agricultural land using indigenous plants. International Journal of Environmental and Agriculture Research, 2(1), 8–14.
  89. Hazotte, C., Laubie, B., Pacault, S., Dufaud, O., & Simonnot, M. O. (2020). Evaluation of the performance of nickel hyperaccumulator plants as combustion fuel. Biomass and Bioenergy, 140, 105671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105671
  90. He, X., Zhang, J., Ren, Y., Sun, C., Deng, X., Qian, M., Hu, Z., Li, R., Chen, Y., Shen, Z., & Xia, Y. (2019). Polyaspartate and liquid amino acid fertilizer are appropriate alternatives for promoting the phytoextraction of cadmium and lead in Solanum nigrum L. Chemosphere, 237, 124483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124483
  91. Hernández, L. E., Ortega-Villasante, C., Montero-Palmero, M. B., Escobar, C., & Carpena, R. O. (2012). Heavy metal perception in a microscale environment: A model system using high doses of pollutants. In Metal toxicity in plants: Perception, signaling and remediation (pp. 23–39). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22081-4_2
  92. Hooda, V. (2007). Phytoremediation of toxic metals from soil and wastewater. Journal of Environmental Biology, 28(2), 367.
  93. Huang, X., Luo, D., Chen, X., Wei, L., Liu, Y., Wu, Q., Xiao, T., Mai, X., Liu, G., & Liu, L. (2019). Insights into heavy metals leakage in chelator-induced phytoextraction of Pb- and Tl-contaminated soil. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(8), 1328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16081328
  94. Imran, M. A., Ch, M. N., Khan, R. M., Ali, Z., Mahmood, T., & Ishfaq, M. (2013). Toxicity of arsenic (As) on seed germination of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). International Journal of Physical Sciences, 8, 840–847. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJPS2013.3894
  95. Islam, L. N. (2023). An update on the immunotoxic effects of arsenic exposure. In Handbook of arsenic toxicology (pp. 551–592). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-89847-8.00034-1
  96. Itoh, H., Iwasaki, M., Sawada, N., Takachi, R., Kasuga, Y., Yokoyama, S., Onuma, H., Nishimura, H., Kusama, R., Yokoyama, K., & Tsugane, S. (2014). Dietary cadmium intake and breast cancer risk in Japanese women: A case-control study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 217(1), 70–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.03.010
  97. Jacob, J. M., Karthik, C., Saratale, R. G., Kumar, S. S., Prabakar, D., Kadirvelu, K., & Pugazhendhi, A. (2018). Biological approaches to tackle heavy metal pollution: A survey of literature. Journal of Environmental Management, 217, 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.03.077
  98. Jadia, C. D., & Fulekar, M. H. (2009). Phytoremediation of heavy metals: Recent techniques. African Journal of Biotechnology, 8(6).
  99. Jahanbakhshi, S., Rezaei, M. R., & Sayyari-Zahan, M. H. (2014). Optimization of phytoremediation in Cd-contaminated soil by using Taguchi method in Spinacia oleracea. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 4(4), 185–193.
  100. Jarin, A. S., Khan, M. A. R., Apon, T. A., Islam, M. A., Rahat, A., Akter, M., Anik, T. R., Nguyen, H. M., Nguyen, T. T., Ha, C. V., & Tran, L. P. (2025). Plant responses to heavy metal stresses: Mechanisms, defense strategies, and nanoparticle-assisted remediation. Plants, 14(24), 3834. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14243834
  101. Javed, M. T., Tanwir, K., Akram, M. S., Shahid, M., Niazi, N. K., & Lindberg, S. (2019). Phytoremediation of cadmium-polluted water/sediment by aquatic macrophytes: Role of plant-induced pH changes. In Cadmium toxicity and tolerance in plants (pp. 495–529). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814864-8.00020-6
  102. Jeyasundar, P. G. S. A., Ali, A., Azeem, M., Li, Y., Guo, D., Sikdar, A., Abdelrahman, H., Kwon, E., Antoniadis, V., Mani, V. M., Shaheen, S. M., Rinklebe, J., & Zhang, Z. (2021). Green remediation of toxic metals-contaminated mining soil using bacterial consortium and Brassica juncea. Environmental Pollution, 277, 116789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116789
  103. Jia, Y., Anderson, J. V., & Chao, W. S. (2011). Autophosphorylation is crucial for CDK-activating kinase (Ee; CDKF; 1) activity and complex formation in leafy spurge. Plant Science, 180(2), 259–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.08.017
  104. Kabir, M. S., Salam, M. A., Paul, D. N., Hossain, M. I., Rahman, N. M., Aziz, A., & Latif, M. A. (2016). Spatial variation of arsenic in soil, irrigation water, and plant parts: A microlevel study. The Scientific World Journal, 2016, Article 2186069. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2186069
  105. Kafle, A., Timilsina, A., Gautam, A., Adhikari, K., Bhattarai, A., & Aryal, N. (2022). Phytoremediation: Mechanisms, plant selection, and enhancement by natural and synthetic agents. Environmental Advances, 8, 100203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100203
  106. Kalavrouziotis, I. K., Robolas, P., Koukoulakis, P. H., & Papadopoulos, A. H. (2008). Effects of municipal reclaimed wastewater on the macro- and micro-elements status of soil and of Brassica oleracea var. italica and B. oleracea var. gemmifera. Agricultural Water Management, 95(4), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2007.11.004
  107. Kalve, S. K., Sarangi, B. K., Pandey, R. A., & Chakrabarti, T. C. (2011). Arsenic and chromium hyperaccumulation by an ecotype of Pteris vittata: Prospective for phytoextraction from contaminated water and soil. Current Science, 888–894.
  108. Karnwal, A., Kumar, G., Mahmoud, A. E. D., Dutta, J., Singh, R., Al-Tawaha, A. R. M. S., & Malik, T. (2025). Eco-engineered remediation: Microbial and rhizosphere-based strategies for heavy metal detoxification. Current Research in Biotechnology, 9, 100297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crbiot.2025.100297
  109. Khalid, N., Noman, A., Aqeel, M., Masood, A., Tufail, A., & Yousaf, S. (2019). Phytoremediation potential of Xanthium strumarium for heavy metals-contaminated soils at roadsides. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 16, 2091–2100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-1825-5
  110. Khan, A. H. A., Kiyani, A., Mirza, C. R., Butt, T. A., Barros, R., Ali, B., Iqbal, M., & Yousaf, S. (2021). Ornamental plants for the phytoremediation of heavy metals: Present knowledge and future perspectives. Environmental Research, 195, 110780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.110780
  111. Khan, I., Iqbal, M., & Shafiq, F. (2019). Phytomanagement of lead-contaminated soils: Critical review of new trends and future prospects. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 16, 6473–6488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-019-02431-2
  112. Koptsik, G. N. (2014). Problems and prospects concerning the phytoremediation of heavy metal-polluted soils: A review. Eurasian Soil Science, 47, 923–939. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229314090075
  113. Koren’kov, V., Park, S., Cheng, N.-H., Sreevidya, C., Lachmansingh, J., Morris, J., Hirschi, K., & Wagner, G. J. (2006). Enhanced Cd²⁺-selective root tonoplast transport in tobaccos expressing Arabidopsis cation exchangers. Planta, 225(2), 403–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-006-0352-7
  114. Krämer, U., Pickering, I. J., Prince, R. C., Raskin, I., & Salt, D. E. (2000). Subcellular localization and speciation of nickel in hyperaccumulator and non-accumulator Thlaspi species. Plant Physiology, 122(4), 1343–1354. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.122.4.1343
  115. Krishnamurti, G. S. R., Cieslinski, G., Huang, P. M., & Van Rees, K. C. J. (1997). Kinetics of cadmium release from soils as influenced by organic acids: Implication for cadmium availability. Journal of Environmental Quality, 26(1), 271–277. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600010038x
  116. Kubota, H., & Takenaka, C. (2003). Arabis gemmifera is a hyperaccumulator of Cd and Zn. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 5(3), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/713779219
  117. Kucharski, R., Sas-Nowosielska, A., Małkowski, E., Japenga, J., Kuperberg, J. M., Pogrzeba, M., & Krzyżak, J. (2005). The use of indigenous plant species and calcium phosphate for the stabilization of highly metal-polluted sites in southern Poland. Plant and Soil, 273, 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-004-8068-6
  118. Kumar, B., Smita, K., & Flores, L. C. (2017). Plant-mediated detoxification of mercury and lead. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 10, S2335–S2342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.08.010
  119. Kumpiene, J., Fitts, J. P., & Mench, M. (2012). Arsenic fractionation in mine spoils 10 years after aided phytostabilization. Environmental Pollution, 166, 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2012.02.016
  120. Laghlimi, M., Baghdad, B., El Hadi, H., & Bouabdli, A. (2015). Phytoremediation mechanisms of heavy metal-contaminated soils: A review. Open Journal of Ecology, 5(8), 375. https://doi.org/10.4236/oje.2015.58031
  121. Lasat, M. M. (2002). Phytoextraction of toxic metals: A review of biological mechanisms. Journal of Environmental Quality, 31(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2002.1090
  122. Lee, S., Kim, Y. Y., Lee, Y., & An, G. (2007). Rice P1B-type heavy-metal ATPase, OsHMA9, is a metal efflux protein. Plant Physiology, 145(3), 831–842. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.107.102236
  123. Li, W. X., Chen, T. B., Huang, Z. C., Lei, M., & Liao, X. Y. (2006). Effect of arsenic on chloroplast ultrastructure and calcium distribution in arsenic hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata L. Chemosphere, 62(5), 803–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.04.055
  124. Li, X., Zhu, W., Meng, G., Guo, R., & Wang, Y. (2020). Phytoremediation of alkaline soils co-contaminated with cadmium and tetracycline antibiotics using the ornamental hyperaccumulators Mirabilis jalapa L. and Tagetes patula L. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 14175–14183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07975-2
  125. Lin, H. J., Sung, T. I., Chen, C. Y., & Guo, H. R. (2013). Arsenic levels in drinking water and mortality of liver cancer in Taiwan. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 262, 1132–1138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.12.049
  126. Liu, L., Hu, L., Tang, J., Li, Y., Zhang, Q., & Chen, X. (2012). Food safety assessment of planting patterns of four vegetable-type crops grown in soil contaminated by electronic waste activities. Journal of Environmental Management, 93(1), 22–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.08.021
  127. Liu, Q., Zhou, Y., Lu, J., & Zhou, Y. (2020). Novel cyclodextrin-based adsorbents for removing pollutants from wastewater: A critical review. Chemosphere, 241, 125043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125043
  128. Liu, S., Yang, B., Liang, Y., Xiao, Y., & Fang, J. (2020). Prospect of phytoremediation combined with other approaches for remediation of heavy metal-polluted soils. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 16069–16085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08282-6
  129. Liu, W. J., Tian, K., Jiang, H., Zhang, X. S., Ding, H. S., & Yu, H. Q. (2012a). Selectively improving the bio-oil quality by catalytic fast pyrolysis of heavy metal-polluted biomass: Taking copper (Cu) as an example. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(14), 7849–7856. https://doi.org/10.1021/es204681y
  130. Liu, Z., Chen, B., Wang, L. A., Urbanovich, O., Nagorskaya, L., Li, X., & Tang, L. (2020a). A review on phytoremediation of mercury-contaminated soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 400, 123138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123138
  131. Lu, S., Ji, L., Du, Y., Chen, T., Li, X., Yan, J., & Buekens, A. (2015). PCDD/Fs emission and control characteristics for combustion of heavy metal hyper-accumulators in a vertical entrained flow tubular reactor. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 24(12a), 4472–4477.
  132. Mahar, A., Wang, P., Ali, A., Awasthi, M. K., Lahori, A. H., Wang, Q., Li, R., & Zhang, Z. (2016). Challenges and opportunities in the phytoremediation of heavy metals-contaminated soils: A review. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 126, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.12.023
  133. Mahmood, A., & Malik, R. N. (2014). Human health risk assessment of heavy metals via consumption of contaminated vegetables collected from different irrigation sources in Lahore, Pakistan. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 7(1), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.07.002
  134. Mahmud, M. N., Al Kafi, A., Sharmin, S., Muniza, N. T., Tahara, T., Raidah, R., Batool, R., & Islam, M. M. (2026). Phytoremediation of contaminated soils: Current trends and future prospects. Earth Critical Zone, 100072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecz.2026.100072
  135. Manara, A. (2012). Plant responses to heavy metal toxicity. In Plants and heavy metals (pp. 27–53). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4441-7_2
  136. Manikandan, R., Sahi, S. V., & Venkatachalam, P. (2015). Impact assessment of mercury accumulation and biochemical and molecular response of Mentha arvensis: A potential hyperaccumulator plant. The Scientific World Journal, 2015, Article 715217. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/715217
  137. Manzoor, M., Gul, I., Manzoor, A., Kamboh, U. R., Hina, K., & Kallerhoff, J. (2020). Lead availability and phytoextraction in the rhizosphere of Pelargonium species. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 39753–39762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08226-0
  138. Marrugo-Negrete, J., Durango-Hernández, J., Pinedo-Hernández, J., Olivero-Verbel, J., & Díez, S. (2015). Phytoremediation of mercury-contaminated soils by Jatropha curcas. Chemosphere, 127, 58–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.12.073
  139. Martínez-Castillo, J. I., Saldaña-Robles, A., & Ozuna, C. (2022). Arsenic stress in plants: A metabolomic perspective. Plant Stress, 3, 100055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2022.100055
  140. Milner, M. J., & Kochian, L. V. (2008). Investigating heavy-metal hyperaccumulation using Thlaspi caerulescens as a model system. Annals of Botany, 102(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcn063
  141. Mocek-Płóciniak, A., Mencel, J., Zakrzewski, W., & Roszkowski, S. (2023). Phytoremediation as an effective remedy for removing trace elements from ecosystems. Plants, 12(8), 1653. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12081653
  142. Mohamed, H. I., Ullah, I., Toor, M. D., Tanveer, N. A., Din, M. M. U., Basit, A., Sultan, Y., Muhammad, M., & Rehman, M. U. (2025). Heavy metals toxicity in plants: Understanding mechanisms and developing coping strategies for remediation: A review. Bioresources and Bioprocessing, 12(1), 95. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-025-00930-4
  143. Mohanty, M. (2016). Post-harvest management of phytoremediation technology. Journal of Environmental & Analytical Toxicology, 6(5), 398. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0525.1000398
  144. Muthusaravanan, S., Sivarajasekar, N., Vivek, J. S., Paramasivan, T., Naushad, M., Prakashmaran, J., Gayathri, V., & Al-Duaij, O. K. (2018). Phytoremediation of heavy metals: Mechanisms, methods and enhancements. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 16, 1339–1359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-0762-3
  145. Muthusaravanan, S., Sivarajasekar, N., Vivek, J. S., Vasudha Priyadharshini, S., Paramasivan, T., Dhakal, N., & Naushad, M. (2019). Research updates on heavy metal phytoremediation: Enhancements, efficient post-harvesting strategies and economic opportunities. In Green materials for wastewater treatment (pp. 191–222). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17724-9_9
  146. Nareshkumar, A., Veeranagamallaiah, G., Pandurangaiah, M., Kiranmai, K., Amaranathareddy, V., Lokesh, U., Venkatesh, B., & Sudhakar, C. (2015). Pb-stress-induced oxidative stress caused alterations in antioxidant efficacy in two groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivars. Agricultural Sciences, 6(10), 1283. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2015.610123
  147. Nedjimi, B. (2021). Phytoremediation: A sustainable environmental technology for heavy metals decontamination. SN Applied Sciences, 3(3), 286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04301-4
  148. Neilson, S., & Rajakaruna, N. (2015). Phytoremediation of agricultural soils: Using plants to clean metal-contaminated arable land. In Phytoremediation: Management of environmental contaminants (pp. 159–168). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10395-2_11
  149. Ng, C. C., Boyce, A., Rahman, M., & Abas, R. (2017). Tolerance threshold and phyto-assessment of cadmium and lead in vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash. Chiang Mai Journal of Science, 44(4), 1367–1378.
  150. Ning, Y., Liu, N., Song, Y., Luo, J., & Li, T. (2019). Enhancement of phytoextraction of Pb by compounded activation agent derived from fruit residue. International Journal of Phytoremediation, 21(14), 1449–1456. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2019.1633266
  151. Oladoye, P. O., Olowe, O. M., & Asemoloye, M. D. (2022). Phytoremediation technology and food security impacts of heavy metal-contaminated soils: A review of literature. Chemosphere, 288, 132555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132555
  152. Oubohssaine, M., & Dahmani, I. (2024). Phytoremediation: Harnessing plant power and innovative technologies for effective soil remediation. Plant Stress, 14, 100578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2024.100578
  153. Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
  154. Pan, J., Plant, J. A., Voulvoulis, N., Oates, C. J., Ihlenfeld, C., & Kneer, R. (2010). Cadmium levels in Europe: Implications for human health. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 32, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-009-9273-2
  155. Pandey, J., Chand, S., Pandey, S., & Patra, D. D. (2015). Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats.) as a putative crop for phytoremediation in tannery sludge-polluted soil. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 122, 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.08.005
  156. Park, R. M., Bena, J. F., Stayner, L. T., Smith, R. J., Gibb, H. J., & Lees, P. S. (2004). Hexavalent chromium and lung cancer in the chromate industry: A quantitative risk assessment. Risk Analysis, 24(5), 1099–1108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00512.x
  157. Peco, J. D., Higueras, P., Campos, J. A., Esbrí, J. M., Moreno, M. M., Battaglia-Brunet, F., & Sandalio, L. M. (2021). Abandoned mine lands reclamation by plant remediation technologies. Sustainability, 13(12), 6555. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126555
  158. Pedas, P., Schiller Stokholm, M., Hegelund, J. N., Ladegård, A. H., Schjoerring, J. K., & Husted, S. (2014). Golgi-localized barley MTP8 proteins facilitate Mn transport. PLOS ONE, 9(12), e113759. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0113759
  159. Peng, K., Luo, C., You, W., Lian, C., Li, X., & Shen, Z. (2008). Manganese uptake and interactions with cadmium in the hyperaccumulator Phytolacca americana L. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 154(1–3), 674–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.10.080
  160. Pérez-Sanz, A., Millán, R., Sierra, M. J., Alarcón, R., García, P., Gil-Díaz, M., Vázquez, S., & Lobo, M. C. (2012). Mercury uptake by Silene vulgaris grown on contaminated spiked soils. Journal of Environmental Management, 95, S233–S237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.07.018
  161. Persans, M. W., Nieman, K., & Salt, D. E. (2001). Functional activity and role of cation-efflux family members in Ni hyperaccumulation in Thlaspi goesingense. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(17), 9995–10000. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.171039798
  162. Ping, L., Xingxiang, W., Taolin, Z., Dongmei, Z., & Yuanqiu, H. (2008). Effects of several amendments on rice growth and uptake of copper and cadmium from a contaminated soil. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 20(4), 449–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(08)62078-1
  163. Pourrut, B., Shahid, M., Dumat, C., Winterton, P., & Pinelli, E. (2011). Lead uptake, toxicity, and detoxification in plants. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 213, 113–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9860-6_4
  164. Pulford, I. D., & Watson, C. (2003). Phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated land by trees: A review. Environment International, 29(4), 529–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(02)00152-6
  165. Radziemska, M. (2018). Study of applying naturally occurring mineral sorbents of Poland (dolomite, halloysite, chalcedonite) for aided phytostabilization of soil polluted with heavy metals. Catena, 163, 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.12.015
  166. Rahman, S. H., Khanam, D., Adyel, T. M., Islam, M. S., Ahsan, M. A., & Akbor, M. A. (2012). Assessment of heavy metal contamination of agricultural soil around Dhaka Export Processing Zone (DEPZ), Bangladesh: Implication of seasonal variation and indices. Applied Sciences, 2(3), 584–601. https://doi.org/10.3390/app2030584
  167. Rai, V. K. (2002). Role of amino acids in plant responses to stresses. Biologia Plantarum, 45(4), 481–487. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022308229759
  168. Rascio, N., & Navari-Izzo, F. (2011). Heavy metal hyperaccumulating plants: How and why do they do it? And what makes them so interesting? Plant Science, 180(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.08.016
  169. Reeves, R. D., Baker, A. J. M., Jaffré, T., Erskine, P. D., Echevarria, G., & Van der Ent, A. (2018). A global database for plants that hyperaccumulate metal and metalloid trace elements. New Phytologist, 218(2), 407–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14907
  170. Rezaee, A., Derayat, J., Mortazavi, S. B., Yamini, Y., & Jafarzadeh, M. T. (2005). Removal of mercury from chlor-alkali industry wastewater using Acetobacter xylinum cellulose. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1(2), 102–105. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2005.102.105
  171. Rezania, S., Taib, S. M., Din, M. F. M., Dahalan, F. A., Kamyab, H., & Chew, W. (2016). Comprehensive review on phytotechnology: Heavy metals removal by diverse aquatic plant species from wastewater. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 318, 587–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.07.053
  172. Rizzi, L., Petruzzelli, G., Poggio, G., & Guidi, G. V. (2004). Soil physical changes and plant availability of Zn and Pb in a treatability test of phytostabilization. Chemosphere, 57(9), 1039–1046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.08.048
  173. Rotkittikhun, P., Chaiyarat, R., Kruatrachue, M., Pokethitiyook, P., & Baker, A. J. M. (2007). Growth and lead accumulation by the grasses Vetiveria zizanioides and Thysanolaena maxima in lead-contaminated soil amended with pig manure and fertilizer: A glasshouse study. Chemosphere, 66(1), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.05.038
  174. Roy, S. B., & Bera, A. K. (2002). Individual and combined effect of mercury and manganese on phenol and proline content in leaf and stem of mungbean seedlings. Journal of Environmental Biology, 23(4), 433–435.
  175. Rubio, C., Paz, S., Tius, E., Hardisson, A., Gutiérrez, A. J., González-Weller, D., Caballero, J. M., & Revert, C. (2018). Metal contents in the most widely consumed commercial preparations of four different medicinal plants (Aloe, Senna, Ginseng, and Ginkgo) from Europe. Biological Trace Element Research, 186(2), 562–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1329-7
  176. Ruppert, L., Lin, Z. Q., Dixon, R. P., & Johnson, K. A. (2013). Assessment of solid-phase microextraction fibers for the monitoring of volatile organoarsenicals emitted from a plant–soil system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 262, 1230–1236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.06.046
  177. Saifullah, Sarwar, N., Bibi, S., Ahmad, M., & Ok, Y. S. (2014). Effectiveness of zinc application to minimize cadmium toxicity and accumulation in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Environmental Earth Sciences, 71, 1663–1672. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2570-1
  178. Salido, A. L., Hasty, K. L., Lim, J. M., & Butcher, D. J. (2003). Phytoremediation of arsenic and lead in contaminated soil using Chinese brake ferns (Pteris vittata) and Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). International Journal of Phytoremediation, 5(2), 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/713610173
  179. Sarret, G., Saumitou-Laprade, P., Bert, V., Proux, O., Hazemann, J.-L., Traverse, A., Marcus, M. A., & Manceau, A. (2002). Forms of zinc accumulated in the hyperaccumulator Arabidopsis halleri. Plant Physiology, 130(4), 1815–1826. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.007799
  180. Sarwar, N., Imran, M., Shaheen, M. R., Ishaque, W., Kamran, M. A., Matloob, A., Rehim, A., & Hussain, S. (2017). Phytoremediation strategies for soils contaminated with heavy metals: Modifications and future perspectives. Chemosphere, 171, 710–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.116
  181. Sas-Nowosielska, A., Galimska-Stypa, R., Kucharski, R., Zielonka, U., Małkowski, E., & Gray, L. (2008). Remediation aspect of microbial changes of plant rhizosphere in mercury-contaminated soil. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 137, 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9732-0
  182. Sharma, P., & Pandey, S. (2014). Status of phytoremediation in the world scenario. International Journal of Environmental Bioremediation & Biodegradation, 2(4), 178–191.
  183. Sharma, S. S., & Dietz, K. J. (2006). The significance of amino acids and amino acid-derived molecules in plant responses and adaptation to heavy metal stress. Journal of Experimental Botany, 57(4), 711–726. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erj073
  184. Sharma, S. S., Dietz, K. J., & Mimura, T. (2016). Vacuolar compartmentalization as an indispensable component of heavy metal detoxification in plants. Plant, Cell & Environment, 39(5), 1112–1126. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.12706
  185. Sheoran, V., Sheoran, A. S., & Poonia, P. (2010). Role of hyperaccumulators in phytoextraction of metals from contaminated mining sites: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 41(2), 168–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643380902718418
  186. Singh, J., & Kalamdhad, A. S. (2011). Effects of heavy metals on soil, plants, human health and aquatic life. International Journal of Research in Chemistry and Environment, 1(2), 15–21.
  187. Singh, N., Ma, L. Q., Vu, J. C., & Raj, A. (2009). Effects of arsenic on nitrate metabolism in arsenic hyperaccumulating and non-hyperaccumulating ferns. Environmental Pollution, 157(8–9), 2300–2305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.03.036
  188. Song, U., & Park, H. (2017). Importance of biomass management acts and policies after phytoremediation. Journal of Ecology and Environment, 41, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41610-017-0033-4
  189. Srivastava, M., Ma, L. Q., & Santos, J. A. (2006). Three new arsenic hyperaccumulating ferns. Science of the Total Environment, 364(1–3), 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.11.002
  190. Sumiahadi, A., & Acar, R. (2018). A review of phytoremediation technology: Heavy metals uptake by plants. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 142, Article 012023). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/142/1/012023
  191. Sun, R. L., Zhou, Q. X., & Jin, C. X. (2006). Cadmium accumulation in relation to organic acids in leaves of Solanum nigrum L. as a newly found cadmium hyperaccumulator. Plant and Soil, 285, 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-006-0064-6
  192. Sun, Y., Lu, Q., Cao, Y., Wang, M., Cheng, X., & Yan, Q. (2019). Comparative transcriptome analysis of the molecular mechanism of the hairy roots of Brassica campestris L. in response to cadmium stress. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(1), 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010180
  193. Takahashi, R., Ishimaru, Y., Senoura, T., Shimo, H., Ishikawa, S., Arao, T., Nakanishi, H., & Nishizawa, N. K. (2011). The OsNRAMP1 iron transporter is involved in Cd accumulation in rice. Journal of Experimental Botany, 62(14), 4843–4850. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err136
  194. Tamma, A. A., Lejcuś, K., Fiałkiewicz, W., & Marczak, D. (2025). Advancing phytoremediation: A review of soil amendments for heavy metal contamination management. Sustainability, 17(13), 5688. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135688
  195. Tamura, H., Honda, M., Sato, T., & Kamachi, H. (2005). Pb hyperaccumulation and tolerance in common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench). Journal of Plant Research, 118, 355–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10265-005-0229-z
  196. Tangahu, B. V., Abdullah, S. R. S., Basri, H., Idris, M., Anuar, N., & Mukhlisin, M. A. (2011). A review on heavy metals (As, Pb, and Hg) uptake by plants through phytoremediation. International Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2011, Article 939161. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/939161
  197. Tayibi, S., Monlau, F., Bargaz, A., Jimenez, R., & Barakat, A. (2021). Synergy of anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis processes for sustainable waste management: A critical review and future perspectives. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 152, 111603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111603
  198. Tchounwou, P. B., Yedjou, C. G., Patlolla, A. K., & Sutton, D. J. (2012). Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. In Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology (pp. 133–164). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6
  199. Tekle-Haimanot, R., Melaku, Z., Kloos, H., Reimann, C., Fantaye, W., Zerihun, L., & Bjorvatn, K. (2006). The geographic distribution of fluoride in surface and groundwater in Ethiopia with an emphasis on the Rift Valley. Science of the Total Environment, 367(1), 182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.11.003
  200. Thakur, S., Singh, L., Wahid, Z. A., Siddiqui, M. F., Atnaw, S. M., & Din, M. F. (2016). Plant-driven removal of heavy metals from soil: Uptake, translocation, tolerance mechanism, challenges, and future perspectives. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5211-9
  201. Thangavel, P., & Subbhuraam, C. V. (2004). Phytoextraction: Role of hyperaccumulators in metal-contaminated soils. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy Part B, 70(1), 109–130.
  202. Tlustoš, P., Száková, J., Hrubý, J., Najmanová, J., Nedělník, J., Pavlíková, D., & Batysta, M. (2006). Removal of As, Cd, Pb, and Zn from contaminated soil by high biomass-producing plants. Plant, Soil and Environment, 52(9), 413–423. https://doi.org/10.17221/3460-PSE
  203. Tong, Y. P., Kneer, R., & Zhu, Y. G. (2004). Vacuolar compartmentalization: A second-generation approach to engineering plants for phytoremediation. Trends in Plant Science, 9(1), 7–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2003.11.009
  204. Udoka, O. C., Ekanem, E. O., Harami, M. A., & Tafawa, A. (2014). Phytoaccumulation potentials of Tamarindus indica. International Journal of Innovation Science and Research, 11, 72–78.
  205. Usman, K., Al Jabri, H., Abu-Dieyeh, M. H., & Alsafran, M. H. (2020). Comparative assessment of toxic metals bioaccumulation and the mechanisms of chromium (Cr) tolerance and uptake in Calotropis procera. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 883. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00883
  206. Usman, K., Al-Ghouti, M. A., & Abu-Dieyeh, M. H. (2018). Phytoremediation: Halophytes as promising heavy metal hyperaccumulators. In Heavy metals (pp. 27–38). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.73879
  207. Vasilachi, I. C., Stoleru, V., & Gavrilescu, M. (2023). Analysis of heavy metal impacts on cereal crop growth and development in contaminated soils. Agriculture, 13(10), 1983. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101983
  208. Verbruggen, N., Hermans, C., & Schat, H. (2009). Molecular mechanisms of metal hyperaccumulation in plants. New Phytologist, 181(4), 759–776. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02748.x
  209. Verret, F., Gravot, A., Auroy, P., Leonhardt, N., David, P., Nussaume, L., Vavasseur, A., & Richaud, P. (2004). Overexpression of AtHMA4 enhances root-to-shoot translocation of zinc and cadmium and plant metal tolerance. Plant Physiology, 136(1), 1–10. (DOI eksik/bozulmuş olduğu için eklenmedi — kontrol önerilir)
  210. Viaene, J., Van Lancker, J., Vandecasteele, B., Willekens, K., Bijttebier, J., Ruysschaert, G., De Neve, S., & Reubens, B. (2016). Opportunities and barriers to on-farm composting and compost application: A case study from northwestern Europe. Waste Management, 48, 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.09.021
  211. Vogel-Mikuš, K., Pongrac, P., Kump, P., Nečemer, M., & Regvar, M. (2006). Colonisation of a Zn-, Cd-, and Pb-hyperaccumulator Thlaspi praecox Wulfen with indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal mixture induces changes in heavy metal and nutrient uptake. Environmental Pollution, 139(2), 362–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.05.005
  212. Wan, Y., Liu, J., Zhuang, Z., Wang, Q., & Li, H. (2024). Heavy metals in agricultural soils: Sources, influencing factors, and remediation strategies. Toxics, 12(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010063
  213. Wang, D., Liu, H., Ma, Y., Qu, J., Guan, J., Lu, N., Lu, Y., & Yuan, X. (2016). Recycling of hyperaccumulator biomass: Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and photocatalytic degradation for dichlorophenol. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 680, 500–505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.04.100
  214. Wang, F., Zhang, S., Cheng, P., Zhang, S., & Sun, Y. (2020). Effects of soil amendments on heavy metal immobilization and accumulation by maize grown in a multiple-metal-contaminated soil and their potential for safe crop production. Toxics, 8(4), 102. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics8040102
  215. Wang, J., Feng, X., Anderson, C. W. N., Xing, Y., & Shang, L. (2012). Remediation of mercury-contaminated sites: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 221, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.04.035
  216. Wang, K., Liu, Y., Song, Z., Wang, D., & Qiu, W. (2019). Chelator complexes enhanced Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. phytoremediation efficiency in Cd-contaminated soils. Chemosphere, 237, 124480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124480
  217. Wang, Z., Tian, Q., Guo, J., Wu, R., Zhu, H., & Zhang, H. (2021). Co-pyrolysis of sewage sludge and cotton stalks with K₂CO₃ for biochar production: Improved biochar porosity and reduced heavy metal leaching. Waste Management, 135, 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.08.042
  218. Wei, H., Tucker, M. P., Baker, J. O., Harris, M., Luo, Y., Xu, Q., Himmel, M. E., & Ding, S.-Y. (2012). Tracking dynamics of plant biomass composting by changes in substrate structure, microbial community, and enzyme activity. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 5(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/1754-6834-5-20
  219. Wei, Z., Le, Q. V., Peng, W., Yang, Y., Yang, H., Gu, H., Lam, S. S., & Sonne, C. (2021). A review on phytoremediation of contaminants in air, water, and soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 403, 123658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123658
  220. White, P. J. (2016). Selenium accumulation by plants. Annals of Botany, 117(2), 217–235.
  221. World Health Organization. (1996). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (2nd ed., Vol. 2).
  222. Williams, L. E., & Mills, R. F. (2005). P1B-ATPases: An ancient family of transition metal pumps with diverse functions in plants. Trends in Plant Science, 10(10), 491–502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2005.08.008
  223. Wu, X., Wei, Z., Liu, J., Chen, Z., Evrendilek, F., & Huang, W. (2021). Oxy-fuel and air combustion performances and gas-to-ash products of aboveground and belowground biomass of Sedum alfredii Hance. Chemical Engineering Journal, 422, 130312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130312
  224. Wuana, R. A., & Okieimen, F. E. (2010). Phytoremediation potential of maize (Zea mays L.): A review. African Journal of General Agriculture, 6(4), 275–287.
  225. Wuana, R. A., & Okieimen, F. E. (2011). Heavy metals in contaminated soils: A review of sources, chemistry, risks, and best available strategies for remediation. International Scholarly Research Notices, 2011, Article 402647. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/402647
  226. Wysocki, R., Bobrowicz, P., & Ułaszewski, S. (1997). The Saccharomyces cerevisiae ACR3 gene encodes a putative membrane protein involved in arsenite transport. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272(48), 30061–30066. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.272.48.30061
  227. Xiong, Y. H., Yang, X. E., Ye, Z. Q., & He, Z. L. (2004). Characteristics of cadmium uptake and accumulation by two contrasting ecotypes of Sedum alfredii Hance. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 39(11–12), 2925–2940. https://doi.org/10.1081/LESA-200034269
  228. Xu, L., Wang, Y. Y., Huang, J., Chen, C. Y., Wang, Z. X., & Xie, H. (2020). Silver nanoparticles: Synthesis, medical applications, and biosafety. Theranostics, 10(20), 8996. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.45413
  229. Xu, W., Jin, Y., & Zeng, G. (2024). Introduction of heavy metals contamination in water and soil: A review on sources, toxicity, and remediation methods. Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17518253.2024.2404235
  230. Yan, A., Wang, Y., Tan, S. N., Mohd Yusof, M. L., Ghosh, S., & Chen, Z. (2020). Phytoremediation: A promising approach for revegetation of heavy metal-polluted land. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 359. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00359
  231. Yap, C. K., Yaacob, A., Tan, W. S., Al-Mutairi, K. A., Cheng, W. H., Wong, K. W., Edward, F. B., Ismail, M. S., You, C.-F., Chew, W., Nulit, R., Ibrahim, M. H., Amin, B., & Sharifinia, M. (2022). Potentially toxic metals in the high-biomass non-hyperaccumulating plant Amaranthus viridis: Human health risks and phytoremediation potentials. Biology, 11(3), 389. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11030389
  232. Yeşilyurt, S. (2023). Phytoremediation method and Brassica family: Removal of chromium, cadmium, and lead accumulation with broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica). Results in Chemistry, 101005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2023.101005
  233. Ying, S., Guan, Z., Ofoegbu, P. C., Clubb, P., Rico, C., He, F., & Hong, J. (2022). Green synthesis of nanoparticles: Current developments and limitations. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 26, 102336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2022.102336
  234. Yuan, M., He, H., Xiao, L., Zhong, T., Liu, H., Li, S., Deng, P., Ye, Z., & Jing, Y. (2014). Enhancement of Cd phytoextraction by two Amaranthus species with endophytic Rahnella sp. JN27. Chemosphere, 103, 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.11.040
  235. Zeng, H., Xu, L., Singh, A., Wang, H., Du, L., & Poovaiah, B. W. (2015). Involvement of calmodulin and calmodulin-like proteins in plant responses to abiotic stresses. Frontiers in Plant Science, 6, 600. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2015.00600
  236. Zeremski, T., Ranđelović, D., Jakovljević, K., Marjanović Jeromela, A., & Milić, S. (2021). Brassica species in phytoextractions: Real potentials and challenges. Plants, 10(11), 2340. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112340
  237. Zhakypbek, Y., Kossalbayev, B. D., Belkozhayev, A. M., Murat, T., Tursbekov, S., Abdalimov, E., Pashkovskiy, P., Kreslavski, V., Kuznetsov, V., & Allakhverdiev, S. I. (2024). Reducing heavy metal contamination in soil and water using phytoremediation. Plants, 13(11), 1534. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13111534
  238. Zhang, B., Zhang, J., Zhong, Z., Wang, W., & Zhu, M. (2019). Syngas production and trace element emissions from microwave-assisted chemical looping gasification of heavy metal hyperaccumulators. Science of the Total Environment, 659, 612–620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.176
  239. Zhang, J., Wu, S., Xu, J., Liang, P., Wang, M., Naidu, R., Liu, Y., Man, Y. B., Wong, M. H., & Wu, S. (2021). Comparison of ashing and pyrolysis treatment on cadmium/zinc hyperaccumulator plant: Effects on bioavailability, metal speciation in solid residues, and risk assessment. Environmental Pollution, 272, 116039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116039
  240. Zhang, M., Wang, J., Bai, S. H., Zhang, Y., Teng, Y., & Xu, Z. (2019a). Assisted phytoremediation of a co-contaminated soil with biochar amendment: Contaminant removal and bacterial community properties. Geoderma, 348, 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.04.031
  241. Zhang, X., Xia, H., Li, Z., Zhuang, P., & Gao, B. (2010). Potential of four forage grasses in remediation of Cd- and Zn-contaminated soils. Bioresource Technology, 101(6), 2063–2066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.065
  242. Zhang, Z.-W., Dong, Y.-Y., Feng, L.-Y., Deng, Z.-L., Xu, Q., Tao, Q., Wang, C.-Q., Chen, Y.-E., Yuan, M., & Yuan, S. (2020). Selenium enhances cadmium accumulation capability in two mustard family species—Brassica napus and B. juncea. Plants, 9(7), 904. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9070904
  243. Zhao, A., Gao, L., Chen, B., & Feng, L. (2019). Phytoremediation potential of Miscanthus sinensis for mercury-polluted sites and its impacts on soil microbial community. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 34818–34829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06563-3
  244. Zhao, F. J., Dunham, S. J., & McGrath, S. P. (2002). Arsenic hyperaccumulation by different fern species. New Phytologist, 156(1), 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00493.x
  245. Zhao, F. J., McGrath, S. P., & Meharg, A. A. (2010). Arsenic as a food chain contaminant: Mechanisms of plant uptake and metabolism and mitigation strategies. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 61, 535–559. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112152
  246. Zhao, L., Li, T., Zhang, X., Chen, G., Zheng, Z., & Yu, H. (2016). Pb uptake and phytostabilization potential of the mining ecotype of Athyrium wardii (Hook.) grown in Pb-contaminated soil. Clean—Soil, Air, Water, 44(9), 1184–1190. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201400870
  247. Zhou, W., & Qiu, B. (2005). Effects of cadmium hyperaccumulation on physiological characteristics of Sedum alfredii Hance (Crassulaceae). Plant Science, 169(4), 737–745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2005.05.030
  248. Zhu, Z., Huang, Y., Zha, J., Yu, M., Liu, X., Li, H., & Zhu, X. (2019). Emission and retention of cadmium during the combustion of contaminated biomass with mineral additives. Energy & Fuels, 33(12), 12508–12517. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.9b03266
  249. Zohdi, H., Emami, M., & Shahverdi, H. R. (2012). Galvanic corrosion behavior of dental alloys. In Environmental and industrial corrosion: Practical and theoretical aspects (pp. 157–168). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/52319
  250. Zulfiqar, U., Farooq, M., Hussain, S., Maqsood, M., Hussain, M., Ishfaq, M., Ahmad, M., & Anjum, M. Z. (2019). Lead toxicity in plants: Impacts and remediation. Journal of Environmental Management, 250, 109557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109557